Towards cleaner air: PM_2.5 exposure and disparities around childcare providers in England

Air pollution poses a significant health risk for young children, particularly in urban and deprived areas. Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) during early life may contribute to long-term adverse health outcomes. This study examined changes in PM_2.5 concentrations around Early Years Providers (EYPs; childcare providers) in England from 2018 to 2022. We assessed associations between small-area socio-demographic characteristics and exposure levels exceeding the World Health Organisation (WHO) 2021 annual air quality guideline (>5 μg/m³). We integrated data on EYPs locations from Ordnance Survey with annual PM_2.5 estimates from DEFRA using Geographic Information Systems and socio-demographic indicators — deprivation, urbanicity, and ethnic composition. A Bayesian spatial regression model with random effects was used to estimate adjusted associations between PM_2.5 levels and local population characteristics. The number of EYPs ranged from 15,780 in 2018 to 18,427 in 2019. Mean PM_2.5 levels around EYPs changed by 17.8 % over the study period (from 9.4 μg/m³ [SD = 1.8] in 2018 to 7.8 μg/m³ [SD = 1.5] in 2022). However, PM_2.5 levels at over 96 % of EYPs remained above the WHO, 2021 annual guideline throughout. Higher PM_2.5 concentrations were observed in EYPs located in more deprived, urban, and predominantly non-white communities. Despite recent improvements, PM_2.5 levels around most EYPs in England remain above recommended thresholds. Targeted interventions in deprived urban areas are needed to reduce young children's exposure and address environmental health inequalities.